RESEARCH TOWARDS INFLUENCING POLICY
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Author: Elizabeth Lawson, 2025
Published as a blog on the Scottish Parliament Information Centre: https://spice-spotlight.scot/2025/10/28/legislating-for-water-resilience-part-1-key-challenges-facing-scotlands-water-industry/
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Author: Elizabeth Lawson, 2025
Published as a blog on the Scottish Parliament Information Centre: https://spice-spotlight.scot/2025/10/28/legislating-for-water-resilience-part-2-why-scotlands-water-laws-need-an-upgrade/
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Author: Elizabeth Lawson, 2025
Published as a blog on the Scottish Parliament Information Centre: https://spice-spotlight.scot/2025/10/28/legislating-for-water-resilience-part-3-how-can-we-ensure-water-services-for-all-of-scotland/
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Authors: Jill Robbie, Elizabeth Lawson, Luis F. Yanes, 2025
Published as a blog on the Scottish Parliament Information Centre: https://spice-spotlight.scot/2025/10/28/legislating-for-water-resilience-part-4-should-there-be-a-human-right-to-water-in-scotland/
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Authors: Paul Teedon, Naveed Hakeem, Karin Helwig, Fiona Henderson and Marina Martinolli, 2020
A report using four case studies (from 2018) to define the impact PWS have on the rural population and microbusinesses, in particular those in tourism, dairy farming, and forestry. There are lots of direct statements from rural business owners, e.g. regarding the risks of investing in new boreholes, the business consequences of unreliable water, the financial burden of maintenance, the variable "micro-circumstances" of each supply, etc.
Quotes include:
"A Local Authority Stakeholder reported: '…if they’re doing it (private supply maintenance) properly, it’s much more expensive than connecting to the mains. So, to be honest, people probably don’t do it as well as they should.'"
"A concern about reliability and resilience remained prominent within most businesses and were magnified by drought. While some evidence of strategic planning and resilience was evident in almost all businesses interviewed, this had not been formalised by any business. This vulnerability is of particular importance given the central role micro businesses play in these local economies."
RESEARCH TO USE AS EVIDENCE (E.G. FUNDING APPLICATIONS)
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Each year, Scotland’s Drinking Water Quality Regulator receives data from local authorities and publishes a summary on the quality and safety of private water supplies.
In the latest report (the edition for 2024 published in September 2025), DWQR states “2.5% of the Scottish population rely on a private water supply”, which is a significant percentage decrease from the 2023 report which sets the number at 3.5% – however DWQR recognises a net increase year on year in the amount of known PWS (22,928 in 2022; 23,034 in 2023; and 23,158 in 2024….) and acknowledges those figures are an underestimate.
2024 DWQR Report: https://dwqr.scot/media/f0xfveae/private-water-supplies-annual-report-2024.pdf
2023 DWQR Report: https://dwqr.scot/media/xpxnhhxz/private-water-supply-annual-report-2023.pdf
2022 DWQR Report: https://dwqr.scot/media/bv4go0kc/pws-annual-report-2022-november-2023.pdf
2021 DWQR Report: n/a
2020 DWQR Report: https://dwqr.scot/media/2q4etvrh/pws-annual-report-2020-final.pdf
2019 DWQR Report: https://dwqr.scot/media/lt5pph0n/pws-annual-report-2019-final-annexes.pdf
2018 DWQR Report: https://dwqr.scot/media/5usd5fcp/dwqr-annual-report-2018-private-water-supplies.pdf
2017 DWQR Report: https://dwqr.scot/media/kl0n2xkv/dwqr-pws-annual-report-2017-compiled-report-final-24-september-2018.pdf
2016 DWQR Report: https://dwqr.scot/media/ksfpr1q2/dwqr-annual-report-2016-private-water-supplies.pdf
2015 DWQR Report: n/a, but a summary can be found here: https://www.gov.scot/news/drinking-water-quality-in-scotland-2015-private-water-supplies/
2014 DWQR Report: https://dwqr.scot/media/lwlopqvi/dwqr-annual-report-2014-private-water-supplies-final-report.pdf
2013 DWQR Report: https://dwqr.scot/media/l1kfuaml/dwqr-annual-report-2013-private-water-supplies.pdf
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Author: Emma Ash for Consumer Scotland, 2023
This is a definitive report, based on engagement with 49 private-water-supply users across nine local authorities, on how decision-makers can best support PWS users in Scotland.
The 17 pages pack a punch including recommendations for improved practical support e.g. water sampling and follow-on funding and guidance; priorities for policy development; longer term national strategy; and more.
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In 2020, Citizens Advice Scotland published two policy insight reports to support private water supply users:
Finding the right solution: Supporting individuals and communities using private water supplies to make informed treatment choices (2020) [Link to full paper – opens in new tab]
Sustainable support: Measures that support individuals and communities using private water supplies to meet minimum water quality requirements (2020) [Link to full paper – opens in new tab]
In 2021, Citizens Advice Scotland partnered with DWQR to commission a further piece of research, collecting all existing body of evidence “to support the development of more resilient and empowered private water communities that can respond to the challenges of meeting minimum water quality standards and adapt to climate change impacts.”
A framework to deliver universal access to safe and affordable drinking water for all (2021) [Link to full paper – opens in new tab]
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Authors: Paul Teedon, Margaret Currie, Karin Helwig and Rachel Creaney, 2017
This comprehensive study involved four (anonymised) rural Scottish communities through community researchers, community engagement exercises, a school lesson, and an information day. It explores the communities’ attitudes, acceptance, and issues with regards to their private water supplies, and concludes with recommendations that are still relevant almost a decade later!
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Authors: Elizabeth Lawson, Jill Robbie, William T. Sloan, and Jaime Amezaga, 2024
An analysis about the challenges, principally driven by lack of knowledge and visibility, of private water systems and domestic septic tanks, and the need for improved policy to help improve the standard of living of people with decentralised water systems, as it does not currently meet UN SDG Goal 6.
Includes a comprehensive history about water services in Scotland since the 1800s!
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Authors: Heather K. Anderson, Richard Quilliam and Heather Price, 2024
A case study about an ongoing "water conflict" in Aviemore, and the differing views from residents and water professionals after the water company changed both the water source and the disinfectants used in 2012.
There is a a focus on the factors that influence people's understanding of what makes drinking water safe, e.g. taste and smell vs. chemical tests.
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Authors: Heather K. Anderson, Heather Price, and Sam Staddon, 2023
A social-justice focused analysis about water poverty in Scotland, with emphasis on SDG target 6.1 not being met (”By 2030, achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all.”) Those worst impacted in Scotland are rural water users and BAME.
This paper urges the Scottish Government and water industry "to recognise that water poverty exists in Scotland" and the authors make recommendations for government, the water industry, and further research.
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Authors: Norval Strachan, Ovidiu Rotariu, Aaron Neill, Richard Allan, Lisa Avery, Ioanna Akoumianaki, Malcolm Coull, Eulyn Pagaling, Faiza Hansraj, Eisin McDonald, and Alison Smith-Palmer, 2021
A study investigating the pathogen risks associated with PWS, and the link between reported gastrointestinal illnesses and unsafe private water supplies. There was very limited data, so the authors recommend further data gathering and analysis, towards a new proposed "spreadsheet model ... which would predict the probability of illness from drinking a glass of water from a PWS."
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Authors: Mike Rivington, Ioanna Akoumianaki, and Malcolm Coull, 2020
A study into the likely impacts of climate change on PWS, based on meteorological and hydrological data and projections. The conclusion includes that North-East Scotland, which has the highest density of PWS, will experience the largest increase in water shortages.
The authors make numerous recommendations including for better risk assessments, different water storage capabilities, and improved soil and groundwater water retention towards improving PWS resilience.
The full report is 86 pages.
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Author: Chris Holdsworth, 2019
A report summarising the challenges PWS faced duing the summer 2018 heatwave, via accounts from two local authorities (Aberdeenshire and Argyll & Bute) Scottish Water and SEPA. Figures created include a map of the PWS in Aberdeenshire Council who requested assistance.
Excerpts include “"One of the most severely impacted areas was Aberdeenshire, where 13% of the population rely on PWS ... 165 supplies (around 350 properties) requested assistance due to PWS shortage or running dry. ... The first request for assistance was 10th July 2018 and as of May 2019 a few properties were still receiving assistance."
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Authors: Josie Geris, Eva Loerke, Diana Valero, Keith Marshall, Jean-Christophe Comte, Mike Rivington, and Mark Wilkinson, 2024
An evidence base and review of current policies and practices regarding how water availability for private water supplies is affected by land use change trends including tree planting and wind farm development.
Most findings point to a lack of existing information!
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Authors: Hollie Armstrong, Alastair Kerr, and Mark MacDougall,
This slide deck describes a Scottish Government-subsidised pilot project to connect PWS in Milton of Cushnie, Aberdeenshire to the mains. It describes the benefits of becoming a Scottish Water Customer, and what the steps and considerations are for the switch.
OTHER RESEARCH MENTIONING PRIVATE WATER SUPPLIES
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Authors: Richard Gosling, Sarah Halliday, Iain Brown, Andrew Black and Sarah Hendry, 2024
A summary about what is currently known about upcoming drought risks in Scotland, including what strategies might help with mitigation or adaptation against water scarcity, including when PWS run dry.
The conclusion is that water scarcity in Scotland is under-estimated and water is under-valued.
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Author: Kirsty Lee Holstead, 2023
This PhD thesis for the University of St Andrews is about joint water governance between public bodies and communities. The author suggests that certain water practitioners are "frontline workers" who are key in influencing community outcomes in water service provision.
Between 2018 and 2021 the author held 24 interviews with those working in public bodies, met with 10 community flood groups, and mapped 188 examples of community involvement in water issues.
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Authors: Diana Valero, Jess Cook, Angus Lee, Alison L. Browne, Rowan Ellis, Vidya Sagar Pancholi, and Claire Hoolohan, 2023
A brief but comprehensive summary on the vulnerabilities of different types of water supplies in Australia, Scotland, England and Wales, with emphasis on the link to the climate crisis and to water poverty / human rights.
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Authors: Ana-Diana Boca, Christopher J. White, and Douglas Bertram, 2022
A review of pre-existing evidence regarding past and future water availability changes in Scotland, revealing trends of increased frequency of drought and flood (with accompanying negative impacts on water resources.) The authors make ten recommendations, including for further research into drought planning guidance, and the testing of different adaptation and resilience scenarios.
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Author: Kirsty Upton, 2024
A brief one-page summary of a longer study published in The Geographer about groundwater storage and recharge, which is "relatively poorly understood". The author urges "more detailed understanding" of Scotland's groundwater storage and resilience, especially in Eastern Scotland where major abstraction for agriculture and distilling takes place.
RESEARCH ABOUT WATER TREATMENT AND QUALITY
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Authors: David J. Blackwood, Juliette O'Keeffe, Daniel J. Gilmour, and Ruth E. Falconer, 2016
A brief report on the process used to create a database of available drinking water treatment technologies for Scottish rural communities. An "expert workshop" (with CREW, DWQR, Scottish Water, a private consultancy, Scottish Enterprise, and WICS) evaluated and confirmed 1) the technology inventory and 2) the selection criteria for choosing treatment solutions.
Recommended technologies are:
Activated carbon, Filter media, Ion exchange, Microfiltration, Nanofiltration, UV, UVC-LED disinfection, Advanced oxidation process, Ceramic membrane filtration, Ozonation, Particle filtration, pH correction technologies, Ultrafiltration, Chlorine dioxide disinfection, Reverse osmosis, Electrochlorination, Chemical disinfection (chlorine), ECAS, Sand filtration, Electrodialysis reversal, Pulsed light technology, Biological treatment, Electrocoagulation, Vacuum distillation, and Organics destruction cell. -
Authors: E. L. Ander, M. J. Watts, P. L. Smedley, E. M. Hamilton, R. Close, H. Crabbe, T. Fletcher, A. Rimell, M. Studden, and G. Leonardi, 2016
A detailed examination of water samples from 497 properties on PWS in Cornwall (England). The sampling design, sampling, data analysis and data reporting were undertaken by British Geological Survey.
The authors conclude there were "widespread problems with system maintenance" and "the need for regulators to reinforce the guidance on drinking water quality standards to private water supply users.'
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Authors: Ioanna Akoumianaki and Ade Ibiyemi, 2016
A study on the factors influencing tap water quality in regulated PWS, in particular where risk of contamination is greatest in relation to catchment influences. Includes maps of different risk areas in Scotland for arsenic (in 25 local authorities), aluminum (21), nitrate (25) cadmium (24) and chromium (10).
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Ioanna Akoumianaki, Jackie Potts, Adenkule Ibiyemi, and Sue Morris, 2015
A report to inform the transposition of the Council Directive 2013/51/Euratom into Scots law for regulating radon in drinking water.
The authors report "Overall, the general population in Scotland is not chronically exposed to high radon in water ... Type A private groundwater supplies in the high-risk area found to have radon above 100 Bq/l are supplied as part of commercial or public activity (i.e. holiday lets, B&Bs) where exposure is usually of a short term nature."
Note that only data from Type A PWS were included in this study.
RESEARCH ABOUT SMALL-SCALE SEWAGE SYSTEMS
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Authors: Kaitlin Ramsay, Ania Escudero, Gabriele Frascaroli, Fiona Henderson, Emanuella Christensen and Karin Helwig, 2022
This detailed report explains the different options for an off-mains homeowner in Scotland. The sewage systems are categorised as settlement systems, packaged treatment plants, infiltration systems, or natural systems. The report explores how each functions and how to determine which is most suitable for your site.
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Authors: Mohsen Nagheeby, Elizabeth Lawson, Jaime Amezaga, 2026
A comparison of different wastewater management practices and performance in high-income countries.
The authors focus on the institutional and organisational frameworks related to on-site sanitation governance, and recommend the following transferable lessons for Scotland:
“Advisory and service-based approaches (Finland) can complement regulation by improving owner understanding and acceptance.
Systematic inspection planning (Sweden) enhances regulatory visibility and accountability, even where resources are constrained.
Professional competence requirements (Norway) improve technical performance and reduce long-term failure risks.
Integrated, risk-based regulation (Scotland) provides flexibility but requires stronger feedback loops to translate visibility into improved outcomes.”
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Authors: Rowan Ellis and Diana Valero, 2022
This policy brief makes recommendations to public agencies, particularly SEPA, Citizens Advice, and local authorities, in how to encourage PSS users to be more sustainable.
The authors suggest that "making information available alone" is not enough to improve the negative environmental/public health impacts of current PSS. The authors suggest that a refreshed communication strategy, new cross-sectoral partnerships, and innovative capacity/skills development approaches are needed.
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Authors: Ioanna Akoumianaki and Adekunle Ibiyemi, 2022
A summary from modelled data and three workshops (with SEPA and local authorities) about the issues and opportunities related to small-scale PSS (serving up to nine properties).
SEPA added "concluding remarks" emphasising their lack of knowledge about the exact location of "thousands" of sewage discharges, and the "complex" and time-consuming process of investigating or compliance monitoring.
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Authors: Elizabeth Lawson, Jill Robbie, William T. Sloan and Jaime Amezaga, 2024
An analysis about the challenges, principally driven by lack of knowledge and visibility, of private water systems and domestic septic tanks, and the need for improved policy to help improve the standard of living of people with decentralised water systems, as it does not currently meet UN SDG Goal 6. Includes a comprehensive history about water services in Scotland since the 1800s.
RESEARCH TO SUPPORT ISLAND COMMUNITIES IMPACT ASSESSMENTS
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Authors: Carly Maynard, Hannah Grist, Kate Lamont, Alexa Green, David Conneely, and Jane Atterton, 2024
The authors spoke with 26 participants from across five ‘case study areas’ : Tiree, Luing, Tobermory, Skye and Knoydart, to establish what the water-related risks were and what actions were being taken.
Issues raised include coastal flooding, coastal erosion, mains water supply capacity, and the lack of support for private water supplies, including where they have been damaged by sea level rise. The authors include a summary of findings and what the most relevant policy links are, such as the Flood Resilience Strategy or National Planning Framework 4.
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Authors: Joseph Akunna, Juliette O’Keeffe, Daniel Gilmour, and David Blackwood, 2019
A summary of case studies demonstrating how Scottish Water intervened to ensure wholesome water at three decentralised water supplies. The authors' conclusion is that "SW procedures are generally effective and informed by stringent application of internal procedures underpinned by the relevant regulatory and policy framework".
NB the case study sites (Fair Isle for 33 units, North Hoy for 18 units, and Yarrowfeus for 37 units) were proposed by SW in the first instance.